Leadership In Higher Education free essay sample

For a long time, America has been known for seeking higher civic and moral purposes in all its undertakings. Campus faculties have been on the run to ensure that students are equipped with the necessary tools to be leaders in the future but at the same time connecting with the current world (Hollander, 1999). The doors of universities, unlike in the past are now open to everyone including the minorities, the immigrants and even international students. The students are trained on professional and technical skills that they must posses. Both the parents and students visualize higher education as an investment and do expect returns at the end of it all. Scholars argue that a college is a place where students, in collaboration with their faculties work together to enhance teaching and learning. It is a place where one is allowed to express oneself freely but at the same time observing courtesy. According to Green and Barblan (2004), it is a community where ones sacredness in obeyed and diversity recognized. We will write a custom essay sample on Leadership In Higher Education or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Here, obligations are carried out with no compromise and behaviors are governed by laid out rules for the good of everyone. Tpectations. Rarely are they achieved because the students are perceived as customers. The services rendered are thus compromised so as to maximize profits. Students on the other hand have a notion of just going to classes at their own pleasure, seek professors attention and demand to succeed with less strain than what they input in their previous academic levels. Others would view these institutions as places where faculties would just wait upon them and fulfill all their demands without considering costs. There are so a many challenges that face these higher institutions of learning. Over years, there has been the challenge on the quality of students produced, financial concerns, faculty frustrations and technological challenges (Saleh, Lamkim Cox, 2008). The biggest problem currently facing university presidents is production of quality students. Depending on regional placements, there are institutions branded as the best. The main criterion used to categorize these institutions is the quality of students they give. Institutions could produce some very good students based on the quality of their professionalism. Parents would strive to enrol their children in such places. However, so much sacrifices go along with this. So many challenges would be encountered in the process of trying to achieve these objectives. First is financial difficulties. The state has been deteriorating in its mandate to fund public institutions. Probably, the increase in intake numbers has led to this. The state has been overwhelmed by the numbers and their allocations for higher education have since become too limited. The little income the institutions find for themselves become very challenging as they try to satisfy the expected standards of training students. These numbers are not only affecting the state but also the institutions. Providing for the individual needs of these students become very tricky when they are in extremely large numbers. Facilities end up being overstretched and thus limited to the satisfaction of the students. The lecturers too are faced with a hard time trying to impart the necessary skills with limited resources. Technology is another challenge. Everyday comes with its inventions only to make life even better. Keeping at par with these changes has been a major concern. No sooner are new facilities acquired than they become obsolete. Similarly, lecturers are faced with the challenge of updating their knowledge so that they dont teach what they were taught but rather what is current in the world. Knowledge keeps advancing and new discoveries made every now and then. It is thus the duty of the respective faculties to educate their members of staff on proper measures to take in order to ensure that they are not left behind. The basic foundation laid on these students could also be a problem. Most O-level institutions, especially the private ones would concentrate on making their students pass and join universities at the expense of them acquiring the necessary skills. The core role of higher institutions of learning is to recognize students complexity and diversity. Without any discrimination, all students are imparted with the required knowledge. Despite the financial hardships, the presidents of these institutions should look for alternatives to make sure that these students are equipped with the necessary knowledge and are trained accordingly. The lecturers should be encouraged to find out the foundations of these students in academics. From this, they should come up with best suited methods to determine how these students would be trained. They should come to their level of understanding and with no excuse on the limited resources, provide the best for these students. They should constantly be researching in their respective fields and liaising with professors worldwide to be up to date on the new discoveries around. At no one point should the universities and colleges fail to embrace new technologies. The presidents should see to it that these technological advancements do not pass by their students. Though leading higher institutions of learning could prove cumbersome, presidents of these institutions should find the best ways possible to solve issues facing them. They should even consult with other presidents the world over to see how best they carry out their activities. At all times, students should receive quality education. REFERENCE LIST Hollander, E. L., Bringle, R.G., Games R. Malloy, E.A. (1999).   Colleges and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   universities as   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   citizens. Boston, MA. Saleh A., Lamkin M. and Cox D. (September, 2008). Empirical Research. The Role of Higher   Ã‚   Education in America: A Spa or a Smà ¶rgà ¥sbord?, Volume 4, Issue 3, Green M. and Barblan A. (2004). Higher Education in a Pluralistic World: A Transatlantic View:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   American Council on Education, Center for Institutional and International Initiatives.

Are Correctional Boot Camps Effective

Are Correctional Boot Camps Effective Introduction Boot camps were introduced so that it can act as an alternative to jail for young offenders or criminals. Several studies have reported that the frequencies of recidivism for juvenile offenders who have been admitted in teen boot camps are extremely high, above 85% (Vito, 2005, p.65).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Are Correctional Boot Camps Effective? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Boot camps may appear like the correct option for young people who have gotten involved in unlawful acts or are engaging in inappropriate conducts. In Boot camps, they consider that terrifying and punishing the teens might discourage them from participating in illegal activities in the future, but this may be wrong. Most boot camps are considered to lack follow-up support, ineffective, and contain physical abuse. Lack of Follow-up Support When teens have shown the signs of rehabilitation, they are allowed to go back home from boot camps. After that, boot camp providers would not make a follow-up so that they can help the teens create sense of what they have experience in the boot camps. This lack of follow-up raises the chances of the teens or young people reversing into the previous conducts. Mostly, boot camp providers avoid follow-up so that they can reduce expenses. Since children are instructed to follow and respect seniors or boot camp providers who use noisy and violent tones, it has been reported that after going back home, many teenagers would have difficulties adjusting to normal superior’s leadership ways. Their teachers and managers usually are not aggressive to students and workers and many former boot campers experience trouble in respecting them since they do not scream and threaten them (MacKenzie, Wilson, Kider, 2001, p.127).Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In several situations, former boot campers engage in more severe crimes after coming back from boot camps since they have learned techniques from their exposure with more skilled delinquents. In the situations of private military boot camps, offenders cope fully at wholly controlled schools, but go back to their previous conducts once they got to their everyday lives. Several young people come back from their boot camp lives with an impression of power or aggressive and commanding authority. These feelings are seen to cause conflicts during youth social interactions at organizations or schools. Most generally, young people who face serious psychological problems after returning from boot camp lives were not intended for boot camp initially. When guardians or parents admit their teenagers to these places in expectations of not having to manage parenting problems themselves, the adolescents can come back with their attitude of being neglected and may make them giving up in life. Sever al teens may experience psychological troubles towards boot camp. Most children experience nightmares after returning home and after a while they may commit suicide. Suicide is a big threat in some boot camps which do not have sufficient techniques of controlling suicidal risks in teens. Some of the deaths which are reported in boot camps are caused by perforated ulcer (Vito, 2005, p.65). Anxiety may result in the creation of ulcers that may ultimately harm the stomach.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Are Correctional Boot Camps Effective? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Parents should consider carefully the program or therapeutic techniques for their troubled teens and they should bear in mind the long-term effects of the option. If a teen experience major behavioral and emotional adjustments in a therapeutic course, the long-standing achievement rate will be much better as has been reported in most rehabilitation analyzes. Ineffectiveness Some studies have shown that boot camps are inadequately considered as therapeutic approaches and mostly they do not reduce recidivism and can really have the negative impacts by raising immoral conducts (Welsh Farrington, 2006, p.341). In line with criminal justice professions, boot camps are not useful or unsuccessful in correcting juvenile offenders (Vito, 2005, p.66). Boot camps are considered to have no major rate of recovery when matched up to the rates of some different approaches. Many people believe that children require constructive relationships which are not generated by the boot camp facilities. Also, teens usually do not consider that they require what are provided in boot camps. Some parents wish for a faster way of correcting their concerned children. They do not understand that it takes some times, but not faster, to correct or rehabilitate their aggressive and troubled children. Emphasizing on the long-term approaches where the correctio n is therapeutic and focus on behavioral change by the recognition of individual or parental accountability will enhance the attitude of their children.Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Boot camps were initially intended for young persons who have been found guilty of criminal activities and parents should not send their children to these facilities. Boot camp is not designed to change behavior by self-understanding. It is a setting which aims to frighten children openly, a course which has reported over and over again to possess simply short-range outcomes (Welsh Farrington, 2006, p.341). Boot camps possess minimal positive impact on children, with more proves of long-term destructive impact. A study by UN showed that while boot camps can be successful in the short-term, they are insufficient reports about the long-term effects and most of these children or young persons need understanding, assistance, and non-discriminative settings such as rehabilitation facilities and well managed boarding schools which will help in encouraging positive behaviors (Fisher, 2008, p.46). Children who are admitted in boot camp usually make friends with other juvenile offenders, wh om usually get attach in a strong and unhealthy manner, having the same destructive experiences. Such relationships create children consider that it is fine to have committed crimes, insulted their guardians or engaged in whichever criminal acts, creating several boot camps relationships built in an unwholesome nature. Physical Abuse Many court cases have been filed for incidences of physical abuse carried out by boot camp providers or workers to the juvenile offenders. Some of the abuses include beating them, instructing them to perform excessive exercises, and throwing them into ditches. Some injuries which are reported are losing their teeth and broken bones and cases of sexual abuse have been reported also (MacKenzie, Wilson, Kider, 2001, p.127). Most boot camps are allowed not to report any incidences of injuries which happen within the camps. Additionally, most of the employees which are working in boot camps had previously worked in violent jobs such as military staffs and o fficers. These employees are very aggressive and violent when handling juvenile offenders. Most children or young persons hate group punishment and fight against unjust disciplinary authority. Several studies about boot camps showed that young persons aggressively hate their boot camps employees. Rather than obeying boot camp regulations, they observe rules as unjust and something which is against them. Therefore, boot camps really convey more hostility to regulations and power. This process may make them oppose all the rules which they shall follow, like even in workplaces or schools, since they have a mentality that they are against them. Reports have shown that 35 children have died under boot camps facilities since 1985 (Vito, 2005, p.66). Most of these victims died from physical exhaustion, torture, dehydration, and suicide. Most camps have a mindset that the boot camp life is thought to be a nightmare and boot camp providers hardly ever attend children when they report any com plain concerning injury or thirst. These complaints are considered as just an excuse to circumvent the hard physical labor. For instance in Florida, where a teen was admitted in a boot camp for a probation violation for intruding at a school after he was found guilty of stealing a car of his grandmother from a parking place in the church. It was his first day at the boot camp when he collapsed while doing exercises and afterward there was a video showing him being struck and kicked by some boot camp employees (Fisher, 2008, p.46). This is a good example of the physical abuse that juvenile offenders face while in boot camp and most of them are not reported. This torture may eventually lead to death and most parents would not like their children to pass through this torture. Conclusion In conclusion, effective approaches include exceptional academics where a child or a teenager may be successful, constructive discipline techniques in a system of proper handling not punishing and using family counseling to retain the optimistic changes which are experienced while in the program. Boot camps which are designed for teenagers or children are not often the effective option for truly juvenile offenders. They need to experience their behavioral and psychological matters along with learning and be taught legal conducts and constructive relationships which helps in enhancing their academic performances, individual relations, and individual achievements. It is change which happens through self-understanding that has long-term and most enduring impact on any individual. Parents should offer their children the chance to learn more about themselves and later learn that they can be a constructive section of the society. References Fisher, J. (2008). Forensics under fire: are bad science and dueling experts corrupting criminal justice? New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. MacKenzie, D., Wilson, D., Kider, S. (2001). What Works in Preventing Crime? Systematic Reviews of Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 578: 126-143. Vito, G. C. (2005). An impact analysis of the Alabama boot-camp program. Federal Probation , 59(2), 64–68. Welsh, B., Farrington, D. (2006). Preventing crime: what works for children, offenders, victims, and places. New York: Springer.

Consumer behaviour Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Consumer behaviour - Essay Example Moreover, these traits mostly represent the processes used when consumers are considering physical products for purchase. Most tourists make travel decisions based on the influence of their friends or family members, or due to the emotional appeal of tourist destinations. It is important to understand that tourists usually undertake varied decision making processes when they choose to go on holiday. A good example of this is the scenario where people who were not meaning to go on a visit any where suddenly make a last minute decision to accompany friends or family members to exotic lands. According to (Solomon, Bamossy, Askegarrd, and Hogg 2009) in modern times, there are tourist behaviours such ‘‘last-minute’’ decisions to travel show that traditional decision-making methods are becoming irrelevant. There are even more factors that travellers decide to use in determining the choices of tourist destinations that they decide on. For instance, it would appear that for some travellers, the choice of where or when to travel is an ongoing process which may be changed even after a decision has been made on the preferred destination. In addition, more and more travellers are allowing their decisions to be influenced by nostalgia, travel party, and date. Travellers today are also more ready to expose themselves to surprises as they feel that this is the only way in which they will authentically be able to experience any destination. According to Alain Decrop, there are travelers who choose travel destinations even without conducting any research on the culture of the places they are going to visit in order to experience the chosen destinations in a more unbiased manner (Decrop 2005). In such cases, what is unexpected adds to the excitement of the first time experiences of the tourists. Planning for a holiday will remove the excitement of first landing in a foreign land and thus destroy the whole purpose of travelling in the first place. 2. Com pare the information search process, as it is described in the case, with the search process that consumers might follow for one other product category (e.g. a household appliance or a perfume). When making purchase decisions, consumers may take into consideration a lot of information; particularly when deciding on a product brand such as a car or a sofa set. This differs from the decision making processes used by tourists when picking vacation destinations. Many consumers do not pick household appliances on a whim; or decide to order for these products from a store while leaving the decision on colour or texture to the seller so as to experience the element of surprise. For the most part, household goods and other such products are chosen after consumers embark on sequential decision processes in which various options are considered in a systematic method until the customer arrives at his or her last remaining choice. Following this evaluation process, the customers will choose the product they wish to purchase. Moreover, there are other ways in which purchasing decisions made during the procurement of products are somewhat similar to those used when travellers are picking on vacation spots. This is because a consumer can change his or her mind and pick on a competitor’s merchandise instead; or cancel the acquisition altogether. This could be spurred by impolite staff in the place of transaction, a long queue, or even a complicated

Dubai Vs. USA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Dubai Vs. USA - Essay Example Body language forms an important part of the communication process though it does not stand as the only form of communication. Non-verbal communication will incorporate many aspects such as dressing, culture and region. In Dubai, males commonly put on long dresses. This has formed an important part of non-verbal communication often relating to the Muslim culture with other Muslims doing the same in other parts of the world. In America, the dress code is different. Men will less likely be found in such long dresses and if found, the conclusion made is that they could be a Muslim. Women in Dubai which is a male dominated region speak softly. Though significant steps have been made to address the issue and empower the women, the culture they have been brought up in dictated that they should be loyal to their husbands which makes them or puts them in an awkward state. Comparing that with the U.S., one realizes that women in the U.S. are more vocal. They take control of things and spear head changes in their respective places of influence. This has been cultivated by the culture they have brought up in. The two differing cultures have different expectations for each gender with the Arab in Dubai recovering from a purely male dominated one and the U.S. being a fairly equal power population. Therefore, looking at the verbal and non-verbal communication in those places, the change that will likely be noted is lack of confidence in some of the ladies in Dubai while those in the U.S. will take the center stage and deliver the message they wanted. Whereas most people will likely adapt to the American culture and be in a position to maneuver well in communication, study has shown that a business trip to Dubai will be more complicated. Though not a must, one will be in a better position if he can fairly utilize verbal and nonverbal communication. On top of this, he should be in a position to follow and understand the basic pointers in the Arab workplace. The role of

Discussion on the Underground Economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Discussion on the Underground Economy - Essay Example The aim of this paper is to discuss the ramifications of the underground economy in the United States and the effects that this has had on the social and economic development of the country. The most logical place to start a discussion about the underground economy is with the job market. There are a growing number of people in the United States that have found themselves out of work in recent years. Still needing money to survive, however, these people turn to jobs for individuals or companies that will pay them cash for the services that they may provide. This negates the official hiring process and enables people to keep the money that they earn. Naturally, there are advantages and disadvantages to this phenomenon. There are those that make the claim that anytime a person has cash in their pockets, it is good overall for the economy. Bills can be paid, goods and services purchased and an overall feeling of economic well being and achieved realized by those who would otherwise rema in unemployed. In some ways, those working on a purely cash basis provide an infusion of money into the economy on a daily basis. Such individuals are more likely to be daily purchasers of food and other sundry items, while being less likely to save. In addition, proponents of the underground economy point out that taxes are still being paid every time that cash is paid for an item or service in the marketplace. Many others claim that this part of the underground economy is harmful to society in numerous ways. First of all, employment and income taxes go unpaid and unrealized. Subsequently, those working in the underground economy go without benefits of any sort. If they are injured on the job for example, they will likely have no insurance with which to take care of their medical bills and their ‘employer’ will likely not claim responsibility. In addition, there are no guarantees of work, no implied sick or holiday time, and little recourse if there is an employment di spute. In essence, workers in the underground economy are left on their own and largely unregulated. Even though the jobs may pay them a daily wage, they are not legal and such workers would have a difficult time making a complaint should one arise. While so called day laborers depend on their daily jobs to survive, they are often paid a wage that is lower than industry standard. In addition, those that employ the day laborers end up saving money that should be going to pay employment, income, unemployment, and service taxes. This is billions of dollars annually that does not make its way back into society. In addition, if the cash that is made by working in the United States (or in other underground economies around the world) goes unspent, or is sent abroad, then there is no direct benefit to the country as a whole in terms of tax revenue. This would negate the argument that even day laborers benefit the overall economy because of the money they spend on goods and services. For th at argument to carry weight, there would need to be proof that the amount of cash spent outpaces the money would have been collected in taxes. Needless to say, this would be a tough argument to win. Another aspect of the underground economy in any given country can be seen in the black market. This is a marketplace where goods or services are traded in a completely illegal manner. What makes the black market a part of the under

A Comparison of the Economic Philosophies of Adam Smith, John Stuart Mi

As far back as man has been on earth, he has been driven towards building a community among his peers. Whether that is a community of hunters and gatherers who share whatever the day has brought to them within their tribe, or a larger community which within its structure lie the inner dwellings of division of labor and societal classes. Adam Smith (18th Century), John Stuart Mill (19th Century), and Karl Marx (19th Century) are of the same cloth, but in modern terms their community is referenced as a government, and they each have their own distinct opinions on the 'drive' instilled within human nature that shape their personal economic theories. I will be dissecting the views of each of these economists, in regards to the role of government within their envisioned society. While showcasing the difference in views, I want to focus on the subtle similarities that these famous economists shared within their economic process and their beliefs regarding human nature. The first economist we will discuss is Adam Smith. Before we discuss Smith's views, we will provide a brief description of the setting in which Smith was able to create his assumptions, and formulate his theories. Smith studied Social Philosophy at the University of Glasgow and the University of Oxford, the latter of which he was not as fond of. The primary economic theory at the time (18th Century) was mercantilism, which focused on foreign trade and a positive balance of trade (Net Imports > Net Exports;Trade Surplus). Around 1760, Smith was in France, which was horribly in debt due to the ruinous aiding of Americans against the British, amongst other reasons. Smith envisioned the government playing a larger role, one which consisted of protection through mercha... ...iety being tampered or an individual causing harm to others and deemed unfit. All of these economists looked out for the well being of mankind, even if their government-economic structures were polar opposites, they all had the intention of bettering the mankind. Some ideas translate better than others and in hindsight , a mixture of all these great economists ideas are what balances out a capitalist system. Works Cited Heilbroner, R. (1997). Teachings from the Worldly Philosophy. -: W.W. Norton & Company. Marx, K., & Engels, F. (2000). Manifesto of the Communist Party . Germany: Zodiac. Mill, J. S. (2001). On Liberty. Kitchener: Batoche Books. (Original work published 1859) Smith, A. (2005). AN INQUIRY INTO THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF THE WEALTH OF NATIONS. Hazleton: A PENN STATE ELECTRONIC CLASSICS SERIES PUBLICATION. (Original work published 1776)

Multinational Corporations Essay

Multinational corporations have existed since the beginning of overseas trade. They have remained a part of the business scene throughout history, entering their modern form in the 17th and 18th centuries with the creation of large, European-based monopolistic concerns such as the British East India Company during the age of colonization. Multinational concerns were viewed at that time as agents of civilization and played a pivotal role in the commercial and industrial development of Asia, South America, and Africa. By the end of the 19th century, advances in communications had more closely linked world markets, and multinational corporations retained their favorable image as instruments of improved global relations through commercial ties. The existence of close international trading relations did not prevent the outbreak of two world wars in the first half of the twentieth century, but an even more closely bound world economy emerged in the aftermath of the period of conflict. In more recent times, multinational corporations have grown in power and visibility, but have come to be viewed more ambivalently by both governments and consumers worldwide. Indeed, multinationals today are viewed with increased suspicion given their perceived lack of concern for the economic well-being of particular geographic regions and the public impression that multinationals are gaining power in relation to national government agencies, international trade federations and organizations, and local, national, and international labor organizations. Despite such concerns, multinational corporations appear poised to expand their power and influence as barriers to international trade continue to be removed. Furthermore, the actual nature and methods of multinationals are in large measure misunderstood by the public, and their long-term influence is likely to be less sinister than imagined. Multinational corporations share many common traits, including the methods they use to penetrate new markets, the manner in which their overseas subsidiaries are tied to their headquarters operations, and their interaction with national governmental agencies and national and international labor organizations. WHAT IS A MULTINATIONAL CORPORATION? As the name implies, a multinational corporation is a business concern with operations in more than one country. These operations outside the company’s home country may be linked to the parent by merger, operated as subsidiaries, or have considerable autonomy. Multinational corporations are sometimes perceived as large, utilitarian enterprises with little or no regard for the social and economic well-being of the countries in which they operate, but the reality of their situation is more complicated. There are over 40,000 multinational corporations currently operating in the global economy, in addition to approximately 250,000 overseas affiliates running cross-continental businesses. In 1995, the top 200 multinational corporations had combined sales of $7. 1 trillion, which is equivalent to 28. 3 percent of the world’s gross domestic product. The top multinational corporations are headquartered in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan; they have the capacity to shape global trade, production, and financial transactions. Multinational corporations are viewed by many as favoring their home operations when making difficult economic decisions, but this tendency is declining as companies are forced to respond to increasing global competition. The World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Bank are the three institutions that underwrite the basic rules and regulations of economic, monetary, and trade relations between countries. Many developing nations have loosened trade rules under pressure from the IMF and the World Bank. The domestic financial markets in these countries have not been developed and do not have appropriate laws in place to enable domestic financial institutions to stand up to foreign competition. The administrative setup, judicial systems, and law-enforcing agencies generally cannot guarantee the social discipline and political stability that are necessary in order to support a growth-friendly atmosphere. As a result, most multinational corporations are investing in certain geographic locations only. In the 1990s, most foreign investment was in high-income countries and a few geographic locations in the South like East Asia and Latin America. According to the World Bank’s 2002 World Development Indicators, there are 63 countries considered to be low-income countries. The share of these low-income countries in which foreign countries are making direct investments is very small; it rose from 0. 5 percent 1990 to only 1. 6 percent in 2000. Although foreign direct investment in developing countries rose considerably in the 1990s, not all developing countries benefited from these investments. Most of the foreign direct investment went to a very small number of lower and upper middle income developing countries in East Asia and Latin America. In these countries, the rate of economic growth is increasing and the number of people living at poverty level is falling. However, there are still nearly 140 developing countries that are showing very slow growth rates while the 24 richest, developed countries (plus another 10 to 12 newly industrialized countries) are benefiting from most of the economic growth and prosperity. Therefore, many people in the developing countries are still living in poverty. Similarly, multinational corporations are viewed as being exploitative of both their workers and the local environment, given their relative lack of association with any given locality. This criticism of multinationals is valid to a point, but it must be remembered that no corporation can successfully operate without regard to local social, labor, and environmental standards, and that multinationals in large measure do conform to local standards in these regards. Multinational corporations are also seen as acquiring too much political and economic power in the modern business environment. Indeed, corporations are able to influence public policy to some degree by threatening to move jobs overseas, but companies are often prevented from employing this tactic given the need for highly trained workers to produce many products. Such workers can seldom be found in low-wage countries. Furthermore, once they enter a market, multinationals are bound by the same constraints as domestically owned concerns, and find it difficult to abandon the infrastructure they produced to enter the market in the first place. The modern multinational corporation is not necessarily headquartered in a wealthy nation. Many countries that were recently classified as part of the developing world, including Brazil, Taiwan, Kuwait, and Venezuela, are now home to large multinational concerns. The days of corporate colonization seem to be nearing an end. Multinational corporations follow three general procedures when seeking to access new markets: merger with or direct acquisition of existing concerns; sequential market entry; and joint ventures. Merger or direct acquisition of existing companies in a new market is the most straightforward method of new market penetration employed by multinational corporations. Such an entry, known as foreign direct investment, allows multinationals, especially the larger ones, to take full advantage of their size and the economies of scale that this provides. The rash of mergers within the global automotive industries during the late 1990s are illustrative of this method of gaining access to new markets and, significantly, were made in response to increased global competition. Multinational corporations also make use of a procedure known as sequential market entry when seeking to penetrate a new market. Sequential market entry often also includes foreign direct investment, and involves the establishment or acquisition of concerns operating in niche markets related to the parent company’s product lines in the new country of operation. Japan’s Sony Corporation made use of sequential market entry in the United States, beginning with the establishment of a small television assembly plant in San Diego, California, in 1972. For the next two years, Sony’s U. S. operations remained confined to the manufacture of televisions, the parent company’s leading product line. Sony branched out in 1974 with the creation of a magnetic tape plant in Dothan, Alabama, and expanded further by opening an audio equipment plant in Delano, Pennsylvania, in 1977. After a period of consolidation brought on by an unfavorable exchange rate between the yen and dollar, Sony continued to expand and diversify its U. S. operations, adding facilities for the production of computer displays and data storage systems during the 1980s. In the 1990s, Sony further diversified it U. S. facilities and now also produces semiconductors and personal telecommunications products in the United States. Sony’s example is a classic case of a multinational using its core product line to defeat indigenous competition and lay the foundation for the sequential expansion of corporate activities into related areas. Finally, multinational corporations often access new markets by creating joint ventures with firms already operating in these markets. This has particularly been the case in countries formerly or presently under communist rule, including those of the former Soviet Union, eastern Europe, and the People’s Republic of China. In such joint ventures, the venture partner in the market to be entered retains considerable or even complete autonomy, while realizing the advantages of technology transfer and management and production expertise from the parent concern. The establishment of joint ventures has often proved awkward in the long run for multinational corporations, which are likely to find their venture partners are formidable competitors when a more direct penetration of the new market is attempted. Multinational corporations are thus able to penetrate new markets in a variety of ways, which allow existing concerns in the market to be accessed a varying degree of autonomy and control over operations. While no one doubts the economic success and pervasiveness of multinational corporations, their motives and actions have been called into question by social welfare, environmental protection, and labor organizations and government agencies worldwide. National and international labor unions have expressed concern that multinational corporations in economically developed countries can avoid labor negotiations by simply moving their jobs to developing countries where labor costs are markedly less. Labor organizations in developing countries face the converse of the same problem, as they are usually obliged to negotiate with the national subsidiary of the multinational corporation in their country, which is usually willing to negotiate contract terms only on the basis of domestic wage standards, which may be well below those in the parent company’s country. Offshore outsourcing, or offshoring, is a term used to describe the practice of using cheap foreign labor to manufacture goods or provide services only to sell them back into the domestic marketplace. Today, many Americans are concerned about the issue of whether American multinational companies will continue to export jobs to cheap overseas labor markets. In the fall of 2003, the University of California-Berkeley showed that as many as 14 million American jobs were potentially at risk over the next decade. In 2004, the United States faced a half-trillion-dollar trade deficit, with a surplus in services. Opponents of offshoring claim that it takes jobs away from Americans, while also increasing the imbalance of trade. When foreign companies set up operations in America, they usually sell the products manufactured in the U. S. to American consumers. However, when U. S. companies outsource jobs to cheap overseas labor markets, they usually sell the goods they produce to Americans, rather than to the consumers in the country in which they are made. In 2004, the states of Illinois and Tennessee passed legislation aimed at limiting offshoring; in 2005, another 16 states considered bills that would limit state aid and tax breaks to firms that outsource abroad. Insourcing, on the other hand, is a term used to describe the practice of foreign companies employing U. S. workers. Foreign automakers are among the largest insourcers. Many non-U. S. auto manufacturers have built plants in the United States, thus ensuring access to American consumers. Auto manufacturers such as Toyota now make approximately one third of its profits from U. S. car sales. Social welfare organizations are similarly concerned about the actions of multinationals, which are presumably less interested in social matters in countries in which they maintain subsidiary operations. Environmental protection agencies are equally concerned about the activities of multinationals, which often maintain environmentally hazardous operations in countries with minimal environmental protection statutes. Finally, government agencies fear the growing power of multinationals, which once again can use the threat of removing their operations from a country to secure favorable regulation and legislation. All of these concerns are valid, and abuses have undoubtedly occurred, but many forces are also at work to keep multinational corporations from wielding unlimited power over even their own operations. Increased consumer awareness of environmental and social issues and the impact of commercial activity on social welfare and environmental quality have greatly influenced the actions of all corporations in recent years, and this trend shows every sign of continuing. Multinational corporations are constrained from moving their operations into areas with excessively low labor costs given the relative lack of skilled laborers available for work in such areas. Furthermore, the sensitivity of the modern consumer to the plight of individuals in countries with repressive governments mitigates the removal of multinational business operations to areas where legal protection of workers is minimal. Examples of consumer reaction to unpopular action by multinationals are plentiful, and include the outcry against the use of sweatshop labor by Nike and activism against operations by the Shell Oil Company in Nigeria and PepsiCo in Myanmar (formerly Burma) due to the repressive nature of the governments in those countries. Multinational corporations are also constrained by consumer attitudes in environmental matters. Environmental disasters such as those which occurred in Bhopal, India (the explosion of an unsafe chemical plant operated by Union Carbide, resulting in great loss of life in surrounding areas) and Prince William Sound, Alaska (the rupture of a single-hulled tanker, the Exxon Valdez, causing an environmental catastrophe) led to ceaseless bad publicity for the corporations involved and continue to serve as a reminder of the long-term cost in consumer approval of ignoring environmental, labor, and safety concerns. Similarly, consumer awareness of global issues lessens the power of multinational corporations in their dealings with government agencies. International conventions of governments are also able to regulate the activities of multinational corporations without fear of economic reprisal, with examples including the 1987 Montreal Protocol limiting global production and use of chlorofluorocarbons and the 1989 Basel Convention regulating the treatment of and trade in chemical wastes. In fact, despite worries over the impact of multinational corporations in environmentally sensitive and economically developing areas, the corporate social performance of multinationals has been surprisingly favorable to date. The activities of multinational corporations encourage technology transfer from the developed to the developing world, and the wages paid to multinational employees in developing countries are generally above the national average. When the actions of multinationals do cause a loss of jobs in a given country, it is often the case that another multinational will move into the resulting vacuum, with little net loss of jobs in the long run. Subsidiaries of multinationals are also likely to adhere to the corporate standard of environmental protection even if this is more stringent than the regulations in place in their country of operation, and so in most cases create less pollution than similar indigenous industries.