Discussion on the Underground Economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Discussion on the Underground Economy - Essay Example The aim of this paper is to discuss the ramifications of the underground economy in the United States and the effects that this has had on the social and economic development of the country. The most logical place to start a discussion about the underground economy is with the job market. There are a growing number of people in the United States that have found themselves out of work in recent years. Still needing money to survive, however, these people turn to jobs for individuals or companies that will pay them cash for the services that they may provide. This negates the official hiring process and enables people to keep the money that they earn. Naturally, there are advantages and disadvantages to this phenomenon. There are those that make the claim that anytime a person has cash in their pockets, it is good overall for the economy. Bills can be paid, goods and services purchased and an overall feeling of economic well being and achieved realized by those who would otherwise rema in unemployed. In some ways, those working on a purely cash basis provide an infusion of money into the economy on a daily basis. Such individuals are more likely to be daily purchasers of food and other sundry items, while being less likely to save. In addition, proponents of the underground economy point out that taxes are still being paid every time that cash is paid for an item or service in the marketplace. Many others claim that this part of the underground economy is harmful to society in numerous ways. First of all, employment and income taxes go unpaid and unrealized. Subsequently, those working in the underground economy go without benefits of any sort. If they are injured on the job for example, they will likely have no insurance with which to take care of their medical bills and their ‘employer’ will likely not claim responsibility. In addition, there are no guarantees of work, no implied sick or holiday time, and little recourse if there is an employment di spute. In essence, workers in the underground economy are left on their own and largely unregulated. Even though the jobs may pay them a daily wage, they are not legal and such workers would have a difficult time making a complaint should one arise. While so called day laborers depend on their daily jobs to survive, they are often paid a wage that is lower than industry standard. In addition, those that employ the day laborers end up saving money that should be going to pay employment, income, unemployment, and service taxes. This is billions of dollars annually that does not make its way back into society. In addition, if the cash that is made by working in the United States (or in other underground economies around the world) goes unspent, or is sent abroad, then there is no direct benefit to the country as a whole in terms of tax revenue. This would negate the argument that even day laborers benefit the overall economy because of the money they spend on goods and services. For th at argument to carry weight, there would need to be proof that the amount of cash spent outpaces the money would have been collected in taxes. Needless to say, this would be a tough argument to win. Another aspect of the underground economy in any given country can be seen in the black market. This is a marketplace where goods or services are traded in a completely illegal manner. What makes the black market a part of the under

A Comparison of the Economic Philosophies of Adam Smith, John Stuart Mi

As far back as man has been on earth, he has been driven towards building a community among his peers. Whether that is a community of hunters and gatherers who share whatever the day has brought to them within their tribe, or a larger community which within its structure lie the inner dwellings of division of labor and societal classes. Adam Smith (18th Century), John Stuart Mill (19th Century), and Karl Marx (19th Century) are of the same cloth, but in modern terms their community is referenced as a government, and they each have their own distinct opinions on the 'drive' instilled within human nature that shape their personal economic theories. I will be dissecting the views of each of these economists, in regards to the role of government within their envisioned society. While showcasing the difference in views, I want to focus on the subtle similarities that these famous economists shared within their economic process and their beliefs regarding human nature. The first economist we will discuss is Adam Smith. Before we discuss Smith's views, we will provide a brief description of the setting in which Smith was able to create his assumptions, and formulate his theories. Smith studied Social Philosophy at the University of Glasgow and the University of Oxford, the latter of which he was not as fond of. The primary economic theory at the time (18th Century) was mercantilism, which focused on foreign trade and a positive balance of trade (Net Imports > Net Exports;Trade Surplus). Around 1760, Smith was in France, which was horribly in debt due to the ruinous aiding of Americans against the British, amongst other reasons. Smith envisioned the government playing a larger role, one which consisted of protection through mercha... ...iety being tampered or an individual causing harm to others and deemed unfit. All of these economists looked out for the well being of mankind, even if their government-economic structures were polar opposites, they all had the intention of bettering the mankind. Some ideas translate better than others and in hindsight , a mixture of all these great economists ideas are what balances out a capitalist system. Works Cited Heilbroner, R. (1997). Teachings from the Worldly Philosophy. -: W.W. Norton & Company. Marx, K., & Engels, F. (2000). Manifesto of the Communist Party . Germany: Zodiac. Mill, J. S. (2001). On Liberty. Kitchener: Batoche Books. (Original work published 1859) Smith, A. (2005). AN INQUIRY INTO THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF THE WEALTH OF NATIONS. Hazleton: A PENN STATE ELECTRONIC CLASSICS SERIES PUBLICATION. (Original work published 1776)

Multinational Corporations Essay

Multinational corporations have existed since the beginning of overseas trade. They have remained a part of the business scene throughout history, entering their modern form in the 17th and 18th centuries with the creation of large, European-based monopolistic concerns such as the British East India Company during the age of colonization. Multinational concerns were viewed at that time as agents of civilization and played a pivotal role in the commercial and industrial development of Asia, South America, and Africa. By the end of the 19th century, advances in communications had more closely linked world markets, and multinational corporations retained their favorable image as instruments of improved global relations through commercial ties. The existence of close international trading relations did not prevent the outbreak of two world wars in the first half of the twentieth century, but an even more closely bound world economy emerged in the aftermath of the period of conflict. In more recent times, multinational corporations have grown in power and visibility, but have come to be viewed more ambivalently by both governments and consumers worldwide. Indeed, multinationals today are viewed with increased suspicion given their perceived lack of concern for the economic well-being of particular geographic regions and the public impression that multinationals are gaining power in relation to national government agencies, international trade federations and organizations, and local, national, and international labor organizations. Despite such concerns, multinational corporations appear poised to expand their power and influence as barriers to international trade continue to be removed. Furthermore, the actual nature and methods of multinationals are in large measure misunderstood by the public, and their long-term influence is likely to be less sinister than imagined. Multinational corporations share many common traits, including the methods they use to penetrate new markets, the manner in which their overseas subsidiaries are tied to their headquarters operations, and their interaction with national governmental agencies and national and international labor organizations. WHAT IS A MULTINATIONAL CORPORATION? As the name implies, a multinational corporation is a business concern with operations in more than one country. These operations outside the company’s home country may be linked to the parent by merger, operated as subsidiaries, or have considerable autonomy. Multinational corporations are sometimes perceived as large, utilitarian enterprises with little or no regard for the social and economic well-being of the countries in which they operate, but the reality of their situation is more complicated. There are over 40,000 multinational corporations currently operating in the global economy, in addition to approximately 250,000 overseas affiliates running cross-continental businesses. In 1995, the top 200 multinational corporations had combined sales of $7. 1 trillion, which is equivalent to 28. 3 percent of the world’s gross domestic product. The top multinational corporations are headquartered in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan; they have the capacity to shape global trade, production, and financial transactions. Multinational corporations are viewed by many as favoring their home operations when making difficult economic decisions, but this tendency is declining as companies are forced to respond to increasing global competition. The World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Bank are the three institutions that underwrite the basic rules and regulations of economic, monetary, and trade relations between countries. Many developing nations have loosened trade rules under pressure from the IMF and the World Bank. The domestic financial markets in these countries have not been developed and do not have appropriate laws in place to enable domestic financial institutions to stand up to foreign competition. The administrative setup, judicial systems, and law-enforcing agencies generally cannot guarantee the social discipline and political stability that are necessary in order to support a growth-friendly atmosphere. As a result, most multinational corporations are investing in certain geographic locations only. In the 1990s, most foreign investment was in high-income countries and a few geographic locations in the South like East Asia and Latin America. According to the World Bank’s 2002 World Development Indicators, there are 63 countries considered to be low-income countries. The share of these low-income countries in which foreign countries are making direct investments is very small; it rose from 0. 5 percent 1990 to only 1. 6 percent in 2000. Although foreign direct investment in developing countries rose considerably in the 1990s, not all developing countries benefited from these investments. Most of the foreign direct investment went to a very small number of lower and upper middle income developing countries in East Asia and Latin America. In these countries, the rate of economic growth is increasing and the number of people living at poverty level is falling. However, there are still nearly 140 developing countries that are showing very slow growth rates while the 24 richest, developed countries (plus another 10 to 12 newly industrialized countries) are benefiting from most of the economic growth and prosperity. Therefore, many people in the developing countries are still living in poverty. Similarly, multinational corporations are viewed as being exploitative of both their workers and the local environment, given their relative lack of association with any given locality. This criticism of multinationals is valid to a point, but it must be remembered that no corporation can successfully operate without regard to local social, labor, and environmental standards, and that multinationals in large measure do conform to local standards in these regards. Multinational corporations are also seen as acquiring too much political and economic power in the modern business environment. Indeed, corporations are able to influence public policy to some degree by threatening to move jobs overseas, but companies are often prevented from employing this tactic given the need for highly trained workers to produce many products. Such workers can seldom be found in low-wage countries. Furthermore, once they enter a market, multinationals are bound by the same constraints as domestically owned concerns, and find it difficult to abandon the infrastructure they produced to enter the market in the first place. The modern multinational corporation is not necessarily headquartered in a wealthy nation. Many countries that were recently classified as part of the developing world, including Brazil, Taiwan, Kuwait, and Venezuela, are now home to large multinational concerns. The days of corporate colonization seem to be nearing an end. Multinational corporations follow three general procedures when seeking to access new markets: merger with or direct acquisition of existing concerns; sequential market entry; and joint ventures. Merger or direct acquisition of existing companies in a new market is the most straightforward method of new market penetration employed by multinational corporations. Such an entry, known as foreign direct investment, allows multinationals, especially the larger ones, to take full advantage of their size and the economies of scale that this provides. The rash of mergers within the global automotive industries during the late 1990s are illustrative of this method of gaining access to new markets and, significantly, were made in response to increased global competition. Multinational corporations also make use of a procedure known as sequential market entry when seeking to penetrate a new market. Sequential market entry often also includes foreign direct investment, and involves the establishment or acquisition of concerns operating in niche markets related to the parent company’s product lines in the new country of operation. Japan’s Sony Corporation made use of sequential market entry in the United States, beginning with the establishment of a small television assembly plant in San Diego, California, in 1972. For the next two years, Sony’s U. S. operations remained confined to the manufacture of televisions, the parent company’s leading product line. Sony branched out in 1974 with the creation of a magnetic tape plant in Dothan, Alabama, and expanded further by opening an audio equipment plant in Delano, Pennsylvania, in 1977. After a period of consolidation brought on by an unfavorable exchange rate between the yen and dollar, Sony continued to expand and diversify its U. S. operations, adding facilities for the production of computer displays and data storage systems during the 1980s. In the 1990s, Sony further diversified it U. S. facilities and now also produces semiconductors and personal telecommunications products in the United States. Sony’s example is a classic case of a multinational using its core product line to defeat indigenous competition and lay the foundation for the sequential expansion of corporate activities into related areas. Finally, multinational corporations often access new markets by creating joint ventures with firms already operating in these markets. This has particularly been the case in countries formerly or presently under communist rule, including those of the former Soviet Union, eastern Europe, and the People’s Republic of China. In such joint ventures, the venture partner in the market to be entered retains considerable or even complete autonomy, while realizing the advantages of technology transfer and management and production expertise from the parent concern. The establishment of joint ventures has often proved awkward in the long run for multinational corporations, which are likely to find their venture partners are formidable competitors when a more direct penetration of the new market is attempted. Multinational corporations are thus able to penetrate new markets in a variety of ways, which allow existing concerns in the market to be accessed a varying degree of autonomy and control over operations. While no one doubts the economic success and pervasiveness of multinational corporations, their motives and actions have been called into question by social welfare, environmental protection, and labor organizations and government agencies worldwide. National and international labor unions have expressed concern that multinational corporations in economically developed countries can avoid labor negotiations by simply moving their jobs to developing countries where labor costs are markedly less. Labor organizations in developing countries face the converse of the same problem, as they are usually obliged to negotiate with the national subsidiary of the multinational corporation in their country, which is usually willing to negotiate contract terms only on the basis of domestic wage standards, which may be well below those in the parent company’s country. Offshore outsourcing, or offshoring, is a term used to describe the practice of using cheap foreign labor to manufacture goods or provide services only to sell them back into the domestic marketplace. Today, many Americans are concerned about the issue of whether American multinational companies will continue to export jobs to cheap overseas labor markets. In the fall of 2003, the University of California-Berkeley showed that as many as 14 million American jobs were potentially at risk over the next decade. In 2004, the United States faced a half-trillion-dollar trade deficit, with a surplus in services. Opponents of offshoring claim that it takes jobs away from Americans, while also increasing the imbalance of trade. When foreign companies set up operations in America, they usually sell the products manufactured in the U. S. to American consumers. However, when U. S. companies outsource jobs to cheap overseas labor markets, they usually sell the goods they produce to Americans, rather than to the consumers in the country in which they are made. In 2004, the states of Illinois and Tennessee passed legislation aimed at limiting offshoring; in 2005, another 16 states considered bills that would limit state aid and tax breaks to firms that outsource abroad. Insourcing, on the other hand, is a term used to describe the practice of foreign companies employing U. S. workers. Foreign automakers are among the largest insourcers. Many non-U. S. auto manufacturers have built plants in the United States, thus ensuring access to American consumers. Auto manufacturers such as Toyota now make approximately one third of its profits from U. S. car sales. Social welfare organizations are similarly concerned about the actions of multinationals, which are presumably less interested in social matters in countries in which they maintain subsidiary operations. Environmental protection agencies are equally concerned about the activities of multinationals, which often maintain environmentally hazardous operations in countries with minimal environmental protection statutes. Finally, government agencies fear the growing power of multinationals, which once again can use the threat of removing their operations from a country to secure favorable regulation and legislation. All of these concerns are valid, and abuses have undoubtedly occurred, but many forces are also at work to keep multinational corporations from wielding unlimited power over even their own operations. Increased consumer awareness of environmental and social issues and the impact of commercial activity on social welfare and environmental quality have greatly influenced the actions of all corporations in recent years, and this trend shows every sign of continuing. Multinational corporations are constrained from moving their operations into areas with excessively low labor costs given the relative lack of skilled laborers available for work in such areas. Furthermore, the sensitivity of the modern consumer to the plight of individuals in countries with repressive governments mitigates the removal of multinational business operations to areas where legal protection of workers is minimal. Examples of consumer reaction to unpopular action by multinationals are plentiful, and include the outcry against the use of sweatshop labor by Nike and activism against operations by the Shell Oil Company in Nigeria and PepsiCo in Myanmar (formerly Burma) due to the repressive nature of the governments in those countries. Multinational corporations are also constrained by consumer attitudes in environmental matters. Environmental disasters such as those which occurred in Bhopal, India (the explosion of an unsafe chemical plant operated by Union Carbide, resulting in great loss of life in surrounding areas) and Prince William Sound, Alaska (the rupture of a single-hulled tanker, the Exxon Valdez, causing an environmental catastrophe) led to ceaseless bad publicity for the corporations involved and continue to serve as a reminder of the long-term cost in consumer approval of ignoring environmental, labor, and safety concerns. Similarly, consumer awareness of global issues lessens the power of multinational corporations in their dealings with government agencies. International conventions of governments are also able to regulate the activities of multinational corporations without fear of economic reprisal, with examples including the 1987 Montreal Protocol limiting global production and use of chlorofluorocarbons and the 1989 Basel Convention regulating the treatment of and trade in chemical wastes. In fact, despite worries over the impact of multinational corporations in environmentally sensitive and economically developing areas, the corporate social performance of multinationals has been surprisingly favorable to date. The activities of multinational corporations encourage technology transfer from the developed to the developing world, and the wages paid to multinational employees in developing countries are generally above the national average. When the actions of multinationals do cause a loss of jobs in a given country, it is often the case that another multinational will move into the resulting vacuum, with little net loss of jobs in the long run. Subsidiaries of multinationals are also likely to adhere to the corporate standard of environmental protection even if this is more stringent than the regulations in place in their country of operation, and so in most cases create less pollution than similar indigenous industries.

Learn Chemistry - Help, Tutorials, Problems Quizzes

Learn chemistry! Get chemistry help, tutorials, example problems, self-quizzes, and chemistry tools so you can learn the concepts of general chemistry. Introduction to ChemistryLearn about what chemistry is and how the science of chemistry is studied.What Is Chemistry?What Is the Scientific Method? Math BasicsMath is used in all the sciences, including chemistry. To learn chemistry, you need to understand algebra, geometry, and some trig, as well as be able to work in scientific notation and perform unit conversions.Accuracy Precision ReviewSignificant FiguresScientific NotationPhysical ConstantsMetric Base UnitsTable of Derived Metric UnitsMetric Unit PrefixesUnit CancellingTemperature ConversionsExperimental Error Calculations Atoms and MoleculesAtoms are the basic building blocks of matter. Atoms join together to form compounds and molecules. Learn about the parts of the atom and how atoms form bonds with other atoms.Basic Model of the AtomBohr ModelAtomic Mass Atomic Mass NumberTypes of Chemical BondsIonic vs Covalent BondsRules for Assigning Oxidation NumbersLewis Structures and Electron Dot ModelsIntroduction to Molecular GeometryWhat Is a Mole?More About Molecules MolesLaw of Multiple Proportions StoichiometryStoichiometry describes the proportions between atoms in molecules and reactants/products in chemical reactions. Learn about how matter reacts in predictable ways so that you can balance chemical equations.Types of Chemical ReactionsHow to Balance EquationsHow to Balance Redox ReactionsGram to Mole ConversionsLimiting Reactant Theoretical YieldMole Relations in Balanced EquationsMass Relations in Balanced Equations States of MatterThe states of matter are defined by the structure of matter as well as whether it has a fixed shape and volume. Learn about the different states and how matter transforms itself from one state to another.States of MatterPhase Diagrams Chemical ReactionsOnce you have learned about atoms and molecules, youre ready to examine the type of chemical reactions that can occur.Reactions in WaterTypes of Inorganic Chemical Reactions Periodic TrendsThe properties of the elements exhibit trends based on the structure of their electrons. The trends or periodicity can be used to make predictions about the nature of the elements.Periodic Properties TrendsElement Groups SolutionsIts important to understand how mixtures behave.Solutions, Suspensions, Colloids, DispersionsCalculating Concentration GasesGases exhibit special properties based on having no fixed size or shape.Introduction to Ideal GasesIdeal Gas LawBoyles LawCharles LawDaltons Law of Partial Pressures Acids BasesAcids and bases are concerned with the actions of hydrogen ions or protons in aqueous solutions.Acid Base DefinitionsCommon Acids BasesStrength of Acids BasesCalculating pHBuffersSalt FormationHenderson-Hasselbalch EquationTitration BasicsTitration Curves Thermochemistry Physical ChemistryLearn about the relationships between matter and energy.Laws of ThermochemistryStandard State ConditionsCalorimetry, Heat Flow and EnthalphyBond Energy Enthalpy ChangeEndothermic Exothermic ReactionsWhat Is Absolute Zero? KineticsMatter is always in motion! Learn about the motion of atoms and molecules, or kinetics.Factors that Affect Reaction RateCatalystsChemical Reaction Order Atomic Electronic StructureMuch of the chemistry that you learn is associated with electronic structure, since electrons can move around much more easily than protons or neutrons.Valences of the ElementsAufbau Principle Electronic StructureElectron Configuration of the ElementsAufbau Principle Electronic StructureNernst EquationQuantum Numbers Electron OrbitalsHow Magnets Work Nuclear ChemistryNuclear chemistry is concerned with the behavior of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus.Radiation RadioactivityIsotopes Nuclear SymbolsRate of Radioactive DecayAtomic Mass Atomic AbundanceCarbon-14 Dating Chemistry Practice Problems Index of Worked Chemistry Problems Printable Chemistry Worksheets Chemistry Quizzes How to Take a Test Atom Basics Quiz Atomic Structure Quiz Acids Bases Quiz Chemical Bonds Quiz Changes in State Quiz Compound Naming Quiz Element Number Quiz Element Picture Quiz Units of Measurement Quiz General Chemistry Tools Periodic Table Chemistry Glossary Chemical Structures - Find the structures for molecules, compounds, and functional groups.

The Number of Pardons Granted by Obama

President Barack Obama granted 70 pardons during his two terms in office, according to United States Department of Justice records.   Obama, like other presidents before him, issued pardons to convicts who the White House said  had demonstrated genuine remorse and a strong commitment to being law-abiding, productive citizens and active members of their communities. Many of the  pardons granted by Obama were to drug offenders in what was seen as an attempt by the president to lessen what he perceived to be overly severe sentences in those types of  cases. Obama Focus on Drug Sentences Obama has pardoned more than a dozen drug offenders convicted of using or distributing cocaine. He described the moves as an attempt to rectify disparities in the justice system that  sent more African-American offenders to prison  for crack-cocaine convictions. Obama described as unfair the system that more harshly penalized crack-cocaine offenses compared to powder-cocaine distribution and use.   In using his power to pardon these offenders, Obama called on lawmakers to ensure  taxpayer dollars are spent wisely, and that our justice system keeps its basic promise of equal treatment for all. Comparison of Obama Pardons to Other Presidents Obama issued 212 pardons during his two terms. He had denied 1,629 petitions for pardons. The number of pardons issued by Obama was  far fewer than the number granted by Presidents George W. Bush, Bill Clinton, George H.W. Bush, Ronald Reagan and  Jimmy Carter. In fact, Obama used his power to pardon relatively rarely in comparison with every other modern president. Criticism Over Obamas Lack  of Pardons Obama has come under fire for his use, or lack of use, of the pardon, particularly in drug cases.   Anthony Papa of the Drug Policy Alliance, author of 15 to Life: How I Painted My Way to Freedom, criticized Obama and pointed out that the president had exercised his authority to issue pardons for Thanksgiving turkeys almost as much as he had for convicts. I support and applaud President Obama’s treatment of turkeys, Papa wrote in November 2013.  But I have to ask the President: what about the treatment of the more than 100,000 thousand people who are incarcerated in the federal system because of the war on drugs?  Surely some of these non-violent drug offenders deserve treatment equal to a turkey pardon.

Language Development And Supporting Children With English...

The aim of this action research is to find and develop the book corner with the use of stories to support children with English as an Additional Language (EAL) within an early years setting. Recommendations in the form of evaluation to show the best methods which will help to improve the way support is given to children with EAL within the early years setting. The report includes the use of research in linking to theories of language development and supporting children with EAL, practice, parent partnership in the form of gaining information on the interests of the child, observations, role of practitioners, and peers. Parents were also encouraged to stay within sessions. The report concludes to show that the use of stories has benefits to children in various ways and this is not limited to only EAL children. It also has the potential of significant impact on communication. It further did have the potential to impact definitely upon communication between practitioners and parents with EAL. Keywords in the form of cue cards with English and Spanish used and these keywords incorporated into circle time and during the marking of register, choosing of activities and to support simple instructions. Benefits identified included: less frustration and enhanced behaviour due to understanding of setting routines; better concentration levels; providing a means by which children can start communication and make choices which also support language acquisition. Nevertheless, theseShow MoreRelatedTeaching Language Acquisition For English As Additional Language Children Essay1437 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction Language empowers a child to express his thoughts and desires, achieve his goals, and form relationships with others. It plays a crucial role in the cognitive, social and emotional development of the child (Berk, 2009). 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How Organizations Can Learn from Failure Free Essays

How can organizations learn from failure? Companies can learn from failure by setting up clear systems of measurement and utilizing certain performance indicators which record failures in detail. Simply not overlooking failure as something inevitable? First failure is defined. Second explanations on how organizations should go about thinking about failure in the right way. We will write a custom essay sample on How Organizations Can Learn from Failure or any similar topic only for you Order Now Third, elaboration on methods organizations could potentially use to learn from failure. Finally, what organizations can learn from failing. Even though there is a no precise definition for failure in organizations, there is a general agreement to what failure means and could lead to. Failure is broadly defined as a condition of not meeting the intended objective or end. Failure could result in the depletion of finance, shrinking market, exit from the market, loss of market share, project failure and loss of legitimacy. We can assume that failure has negative consequences even though the final outcome may be positive, with firms learning from failure. Understanding the need for learning from failure is unquestionable; however it is tough for organizations to put this into practice. It is crucial that organizations understand failure and think about it in the right way before they can go about implementing procedures to prevent such failures from happening in the future. Learning from failure involves understanding that failure is not always bad and that learning from failure is no straightforward task. An organization cannot simply reflect on what they did wrong and expect to not make the same mistakes again. Organizations have to understand about the different degrees of failure which occur on a scale ranging from blameworthy to praiseworthy. They fall into three broad categories which are 1, failures which occur in predictable operations which could be prevented. 2, unavoidable failures which occur in complex organizations which can be managed to prevent snowballing. 3, unwanted outcomes†¦. To learn from failure, we require different strategies for each setting. It is key to detect them early, analyze failures with depth, develop hypothesis, experiments and projects to product them. In order to minimize failure employees first have to feel safe to report these failures. In the article titled strategies for learning from failure the author Amy C. Edmondson talks about http://hbr. org/2011/04/strategies-for-learning-from-failure/ar/1 First the organization has to go about understanding failure in the right way as well as all the possible side†¦ Important for managers to think about failure in the right way. Failure is not always bad. It is sometimes bad and sometimes inevitable and sometimes good. Learning from failure is not a straightforward task. The attitudes and activities required to effectively detect and analyze failures are in short supply in most companies and the need for context-specific learning strategies is underappreciated.? Organizations need new and better ways to go beyond lessons which are superficial( procedures which weren’t followed) or self serving ( The market just wasn’t ready for our great new product) That means jettisoning old cultural beliefs and stereotypical notions. The blame game? A spectrum of reasons for failure? http://www. uk. sagepub. com/upm-data/10989_Chapter_9. pdf Failing to learn from failure reasons? -Simply experiencing a negative event is not sufficient for learning. – Learning can be a complicated process, the acquisition of knowledge and the shifts in behavior must occur at all levels of a highly complex system. â€Å"Bazerman and Watkins (2004) contend that, when organizations fail to learn failures, they become susceptible to predictable surprises. What is the difference between predictable and unpredictable surprises? Predictable surprises occur when an organization leadership ignores or fails to understand clear evidence that a potentially devastating problem to occur. There are different sort of failures and not all failures are created equally. Bazerman and Watkins( 2004) identify four ways in which organizations fail to learn from failures that occur around them: Scanning Failures: failure to pay close attention to potential problems both inside and outside the organization; this failure could be due to arrogance, a lack of resources, or simple inattentions? Intergration failures: failure to understand how pieces of potentially complicated information fit together to provide lessons of how to avoid crises. 3. Incentive Failures: failure to provide sufficient rewards to people who report problems and take actions to avoid possible crises 4. Learning Failures: failure to draw important lessons from crises and preserve their memory in the organization Organizations who face these failures potentially could damage their organizational integrity. Eg Mitroff and Anagnos 2001, Managing Crises before they happen: what every manager needs to know about crisis management. 1982, Johnson and Johnson could respond to an external crisis with their product being linked to cyanide poisoning and thus the company responded quickly by pulling their stock of capsules from the shelves and having great PR work. J and J knew how to handle their PR well and their product managed to get back to the top seller. J and J however became a victim of its previous succ ess and had not done well with ‘Predictable surprises’ where crises occurred within the company. J and J had failed to do proper product scanning and had been a different sort of failure. failure of a different type? Failure of Success. Problem 1 and 4. Learning from failure: Sitkin 1996- Mittelstaedt (2005) – Failure is an essential part of learning for many organizations. Failures, should not be hidden or avoided. Making mistakes is essential to success, a company which appears to be free from disruption may be operating unrealistically and from a uniformed perspective. â€Å"learning to identify mistakes analytically and timely is the difference between failure and success. † Too often employees and managers are unwilling to admit small failures for fear of reprisal. The unwillingness to recognize and embrace failure is also a failure to recognize and respond to potential crises. The longer these small crises build up the higher likelihood it could escalate into a major crisis. In successful organizations, failure creates recognition of risk and a motivation for change that would not exist otherwise. Describes this recognition as a â€Å"learning readiness† without failure, very difficult to produce in most organizations. Sitkin cautions that not all failures are equally effective in fostering good risk management. Organizations learn best from intelligent failures, which have these characteristics, result from planned actions, uncertain outcomes, modest in scale, and take place in domains that are familiar enough to permit effective learning. Organizations need to recognize risks by accepting and acting on failures. Learn the best when failure results from competent actions, not major crises. Still within the comfort zone and employees are eager and experienced enough to respond. These opportunities arise: Vicarious Learning – learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining and replicating behavior observed in others. Organizations need not fail as an entity in order to learn. Successful organizations engage in vicarious learning in order to recognize risk, organizational leaders observe the failures or crises experienced by similar organizations and take action to avoid making the same mistakes. Examples of Vicarious Learning- Give!!! Organizational memory: Without learning from their own and other’s mistakes organizations stagnate and fail to respond to potential threats in an ever-changing world. Learning has no use if the knowledge is not retained. An example of failure in organizational memory is the Union carbide plant in Bhopal, India in 1984. Early in December morning, the plant leaked a deadly cloud of gas that settled over part of the sleeping city of a million residents. Within two hours 2000 of them were dead with thousands left injured? Part of the reason for the disaster was a loss in organizational memory. The plant had been slated for closure and many experienced staff had been transferred out, leaving minimal crew with little work experience, with the training for remaining crew at a minimum. The crisis was traced to staff reductions and oversight failures. Much of the blame for the tragedy rests with a rapid reduction in experienced staff that took with them a large share of organizational memory. Organizational memory comprises of, a) Acquiring knowledge, done by recognizing failures within the organization and by observing failures of similar organizations. b) Distributing knowledge is the key to organizational memory. Highly experienced employees will leave the organization and these people should be given an opportunity to share their knowledge around or those departing personnel will go along with their experience. ) Acting upon knowledge, is important for organizational memory to serve an organization. New employees need to learn from those departing ones.! New employees cannot do things their own way or else it will lead to repeat failures†¦.!!!! Employees have many opportunities to discard the hard-earned knowledge. Because organizational memory depends on exchanging information from one person to another perception change , mistreatment and stubbornness to learn can disrupt preserving organizational memory. Organizations need to learn and build from previous experiences. Unlearning: Effective organizational learning depends on an organizations ability to unlearn practices and policies that have become outdated by environmental changes. Example of Unlearning 1. Expanding Options: When organizations are unwilling to forego routine procedures during crisis or potential crisis situations, they lose the capacity to react to unique circumstances. Unlearning enables the organization to expand its options. 2. Contracting Options: In some cases, organizations may respond to a crisis with a strategy that has worked well in the past. In the current situation, however, the strategy from the past may actually make matters worse. In such cases, organizations must be willing to reject some strategies in favor of others. 3. Grafting: In the previous section, we discussed the need for organizations to hand down existing knowledge to new employees. If the socialization of new employees is so intense that they cannot bring new knowledge to the organization, however, the organization is doing itself a disservice. Although organizational memory is essential, some degree of unlearning Opportunity 1: Organizations should treat failure as an opportunity to recognize a potential crisis or to prevent a similar crisis in the future. Opportunity 2: Organizations can avoid crises by learning from the failures and crises of other organizations. Opportunity 3: Organizational training and planning should emphasize the preservation of previous learning in order to make organizational memory a priority. Opportunity 4: Organizations must be willing to unlearn outdated or ineffective procedures if they are to learn better crisis management strategies Bazerman, M. H. Watkins, M. D. (2004). Predictable surprises: The disasters you should have seen coming and how to prevent them. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Huber, G. P. (1996). Organizational learning: The contributing processes and the literatures. In M. D. Cohen L. S. Sproull (Eds. ), Organizational learning (pp. 124-162). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Mitroff, I. I. , Anagnos, G. (2001). Managing crises before they hap pen: What every executive and manager needs to know about crisis management. New York: AMACOM. Mittelstaedt, R. E. (2005). Will your next mistake be fatal? Avoiding the chain of mistakes that can destroy. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Wharton. Sitkin, S. B. (1996). Learning through failure: The strategy of small losses. In M. D. Cohen L. S. Sproull (Eds. ), Organizational learning (pp. 541-578). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Tompkins, P. K. (2005). Apollo, Challenger, Columbia: The decline of the space program. Los Angeles: Roxbury. Organizations who face these failures potentially could damage their organizational integrity. It is important for an organization to identify these failures and act on them while the company is still in operation. Having a crisis management team to prepare, respond and recover from a crisis is paramount in ensuring that the organization recovers and continues. Preparation must happen before a crisis occurs. In times of crisis, organizations need to systematically analyze its errors, acknowledge the errors and limits of the organization as well as address the issue with a level of sophistication. When an organization continually fails to differentiate and neglect crisis and failures it could lead to detrimental problems for the organization. Failure/ Crisis Management Case Study 1 A hypothetical example would be the Deepwater Horizon oil spill (BP oil spill) that occurred in the Gulf of Mexico from 20 April 2010 to 15 July 2010. The estimated 185 million barrels of oil first made landfall in Louisiana. By June 2010, the tar balls and oil mousse had reached the shores of Mississippi, Alabama and Florida. By August, it had smeared tourist beaches, washed onto the shorelines of sleepy coastal communities, oozed into the marshy bays that fishermen have worked for generations as well as killed millions of wildlife in the process. Instead of dealing with the failure in a professional way, BP inadvertently created a PR situation synonymous with herding cats. It’s had to fight to clear up two quagmires – its oil mess and its tarnished image. (Please Refer to Appendix- New York Times, Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill) In times of crisis or failure, it is important for an organization to understand the need for a comprehensive risk analysis. Should the failure be environmentally or socially threatening, impressions demonstrations of empathy and competence are vital. BP was not prepared to successfully deal with such a catastrophe. To minimize the damage, BP should have immediately accomplished five tasks: 1. Issue regular, frequent progress reports 2. Control the pictures (even some on the Web site appeared to be canned or generic) 3. Transparency 4. Display empathy as a concerned corporate entity comprised of authentic people diligently making a good-faith effort to solve the problem Failure/ Crisis Management Case Study 2 Failure, if properly attended to and rectified is a great plus. It gives the much needed confidence to the public, client or stakeholders in the product and organization. Furthermore, with proper management, the organization will be able to assess its capacity to deal with the systemic and circumstantial deficiencies leading to failures and work out a way forward. A great example would be the Johnson and Johnson Tylenol poisoning crisis in 1982. When the Tylenol scare occurred, Johnson and Johnson responded immediately and positively, taking the analgesic off the shelves, keeping the public apprised of the investigation, and their instituting new tamper-proof seals to make their product more secure. An organization needs to be upfront and out front with their communication about the situation and what they are doing to correct it and protect the public. The organization has to keep the public’s best interests at heart when communicating the issue effectively, clearly, accurately, and promptly upon discovering the problem. Having a crisis management plan in place before a crisis occurs puts an organization in a solid position to handle it more effectively and responsibly. Detecting failure, analyising failure, promoting experiementation? Deviance Inattention Lack of Ability Process Inadequacy Task Challenge Process Complexity Uncertainty Hypothesis Testing Exploratory Testing Blameworthy Praiseworthy Violating a prescribed practice or process by choice Straying away from specifications Does not possess the necessary qualifications or skills for the task Adhering to a prescribed but faulty or incomplete task Task too difficult to be executed reliably each time Process comprises of element breaks when encountering interactions Lack of clarity causes actions which seem reasonable but produces undesired results An experiment to prove and idea, fails Experiment to increase knowledge and understand possibilities leads to an unwanted result How to cite How Organizations Can Learn from Failure, Papers